MEDIEVAL
HISTORY
Overview of
Medieval Indian Period (c. 8th to 18th Century AD)
For exam purposes, Medieval India is
broadly divided into two phases:
1.
The Early Medieval Period (c. 700 - 1206 AD): Dominated by
regional kingdoms like the Rajputs, Palas, Pratiharas, and the Cholas in the
south.
2.
The Delhi Sultanate (1206 - 1526 AD): Marked by the
rule of five successive Turko-Afghan dynasties from Delhi.
3.
The Mughal Empire (1526 - 1857 AD): A vast,
centralized empire, with its effective rule declining after 1707.
Phase 1:
The Early Medieval Period (c. 700 - 1206 AD)
This era saw the Tripartite Struggle for
control of Kannauj and the rise of powerful regional empires.
A. The Tripartite Struggle
The three major empires fought for control
of the strategically important city of Kannauj.
·
The Gurjara-Pratiharas (Western India)
·
The Palas (Eastern India)
·
The Rashtrakutas (Deccan)
B. Major Dynasties and Rulers
1. The Rajputs
·
Various clans like Chauhans (Prithviraj III), Solankis,
Paramaras, and Chandellas.
·
Known for their valour, code of chivalry, and patronage of art
and architecture (e.g., Khajuraho Temples built by Chandellas).
·
Prithviraj Chauhan vs. Muhammad Ghori: The two famous
battles of Tarain
(1191 & 1192). Prithviraj won the first but lost the
second, leading to the establishment of Muslim rule in North India.
2. The Cholas (in the
South) (c. 850 - 1279 AD)
·
Founder: Vijayalaya captured Tanjore.
·
Important Rulers:
o Rajendra I: Took the
title Gangaikondachola (the
Chola who conquered the Ganga) and built the city of Gangaikondacholapuram. He
also launched a naval expedition against the Srivijaya Empire (Southeast Asia).
o Rajendra I &
Rajaraja I: The empire was at its peak.
·
Administration: Known for highly organized local self-government
called Ur, Sabha, and Nagaram.
·
Architecture: Brihadeshwara Temple (Thanjavur) built by Rajaraja I is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
·
Naval Power: Had a strong navy that controlled trade in the Indian
Ocean.
The Early
Medieval Period overview
This era marks the transition from ancient
to medieval India. It is characterized by the emergence of numerous regional
kingdoms, the tripartite struggle for supremacy, the rise of Rajput clans, and
the culmination in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
1. Major
Political Structures and Kingdoms
A. The Tripartite Struggle (8th - 10th Century)
A prolonged conflict among three major
empires for control over the city of Kannauj (in present-day Uttar
Pradesh), which was a symbol of political prestige and the former capital of
Harshavardhana.
|
Empire |
Region |
Rulers & Key Points |
|
The Palas |
Eastern India (Bengal,
Bihar) |
- Founder: Gopala (elected to end
anarchy). |
|
The Gurjara-Pratiharas |
Western India
& Gangetic Plain |
- Founder: Nagabhata I. He repelled
Arab invasions from the west. |
|
The Rashtrakutas |
Deccan Region |
- Founder: Dantidurga. He overthrew
the Chalukyas of Badami. |
Outcome of the
Tripartite Struggle: It weakened all three empires, creating a political vacuum
that allowed smaller Rajput kingdoms to rise and, eventually, paved the way for
the Turkic invasions.
B. The Rise of the Rajputs (c. 9th - 12th Century)
Various Rajput clans emerged as powerful
political entities, known for their chivalry, valour, and patronage of art and
architecture.
|
Clan/Kingdom |
Important Rulers & Key Points |
|
Chauhans (of
Ajmer-Delhi) |
- Prithviraj III (Rai Pithora): The
most famous Chauhan ruler. He defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain (1191) but
was defeated and killed in the Second
Battle of Tarain (1192). This is a landmark event leading to Muslim
rule. |
|
Gahadavalas (of
Kannauj) |
- Jaichandra: The last powerful
ruler. He was a contemporary and rival of Prithviraj Chauhan. |
|
Paramaras (of
Malwa) |
- Raja Bhoja (c. 1010-1055 AD): The
most famous ruler. A great scholar and polymath, he founded the city of Bhojpal (Bhopal).
He wrote books on various subjects and built the Bhojeshwar Temple (incomplete). |
|
Chandellas (of
Bundelkhand) |
- Known for building the magnificent Khajuraho Temples,
a UNESCO World Heritage Site, famous for their intricate sculptures and
Nagara-style architecture. |
|
Solankis (of
Gujarat) |
- Mularaja: Founder of the dynasty. |
|
Kalachuris,
Tomaras (of Delhi), etc. |
- The Tomaras are credited with
founding the city of Delhi (Dhilli)
in 736 AD, according to the Prithviraj Raso. |
C. The Chola Empire (c. 850 - 1279 AD) - The Zenith of South
Indian Power
The Cholas created one of the most
powerful and administratively efficient empires in Indian history.
·
Founder: Vijayalaya captured
Tanjore from the Muttaraiyars (c. 850 AD).
·
Important Rulers:
o Aditya I: Consolidated the
kingdom.
o Parantaka I: Took the title
"Madurai-konda" (Capturer of Madurai). Laid the foundation for future
greatness.
o Rajaraja I (985 - 1014
AD):
§ Expanded the empire to
include parts of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and the Chera and Pandya lands.
§ Built the
magnificent Brihadeshwara
Temple (Rajarajeshwara Temple) at Thanjavur, a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
§ Introduced a highly
centralized administration.
o Rajendra I (1014 - 1044
AD):
§ Took the title "Gangaikondachola" after
his expedition to the Ganges. He built a new capital called Gangaikondacholapuram.
§ Launched a naval expedition against
the Srivijaya Empire (in Southeast Asia) to protect Indian trade interests.
This demonstrates the formidable Chola naval power.
§ He also built a vast
irrigation tank at his capital.
·
Chola Administration: (A Very Important Topic for UPSC)
1.
Local Self-Government: The most remarkable feature. Village
assemblies (Sabha in
Brahmin villages, Ur in
non-Brahmin villages) functioned efficiently.
2.
Inscriptions: Detailed records of their administration, land grants, and
decisions of the Sabhas are
found on temple walls (e.g., Uttaramerur
inscriptions), providing a detailed view of their governance.
3.
Revenue: Land revenue was the primary source. A detailed land
survey was conducted.
4.
Military: A strong navy and a standing army.
·
Art and Architecture:
1.
Dravida Style: Perfected the Dravidian style of temple architecture.
2.
Vimanas: Tall, pyramidal towers over the sanctum sanctorum (e.g.,
Thanjavur Temple Vimana).
3.
Gopurams: Monumental entrance gates, which became a dominant feature
in later temples.
4.
Bronze Sculpture: The Nataraja (dancing
Shiva) bronze icons from this period are world-famous for their artistic
excellence.
D. Other Important Southern Kingdoms
·
The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
·
The Yadavas of Devagiri (Seunas)
·
The Kakatiyas of Warangal (Known for building the Ramappa Temple, a
UNESCO site, and the fort of Warangal).
·
The Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (Known for their
unique star-shaped temples and intricate soapstone sculpture, e.g., Hoysaleswara Temple at
Halebid, Chennakesava
Temple at Belur).
2.
Important Cultural and Social Developments
·
Bhakti Movement:
o Alvars (Vaishnavite)
and Nayanars (Shaivite): Tamil saint-poets who propagated intense devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu and
Shiva, respectively. They composed devotional hymns in Tamil, opposing Jainism
and Buddhism.
o Their compositions were
later compiled into the Divya
Prabandham (Alvars) and Tirumurai (Nayanars).
·
Spread of Sanskrit: Sanskrit continued to be the
language of literature and learning, with many regional rulers patronizing
Sanskrit scholars.
·
Status of Women: The practice of Sati became more prevalent,
especially among the royal and warrior classes. Child marriage also began to
gain social acceptance.
·
Caste System: The caste structure became more rigid, with the
proliferation of sub-castes (jatis).
3. Economic
Conditions
·
Agriculture: Remained the backbone of the economy. The Cholas invested
heavily in irrigation projects (tanks, canals).
·
Trade:
o Internal Trade: Flourished due to
political stability in large empires.
o External Trade: Active trade with
Southeast Asia (Sri Vijaya empire), China, and the Arab world. The Cholas
controlled this trade.
o Guilds: Merchant guilds
like the Manigramam and Ainnurruvar (The
Five Hundred) played a vital role in overseeing trade.
·
Coinage: Mostly gold and copper coins were issued by various
kingdoms (e.g., Palas, Pratiharas, Cholas).
4. Why is
this Period Significant?
1.
Regional Identity: It was an age of regional political formations and the
consolidation of regional cultures and languages.
2.
Administrative Innovations: The Chola village
assemblies represent a unique experiment in local democracy.
3.
Cultural Legacy: The magnificent temples of Khajuraho, Bhubaneswar,
Thanjavur, and the rock-cut architecture of Ellora belong to this period.
4.
Historical Turning Point: The period ends with the Battle of Tarain (1192),
which opened the gates for the establishment of the first sustained Muslim rule
in North India - the Delhi Sultanate.
Crucial
Exam Takeaways: (Must Remember)
·
Tripartite Struggle: Know the 3 empires, their regions,
and their most important rulers (Dharmapala, Mihira Bhoja, Amoghavarsha).
·
Rajputs: Focus on Prithviraj
Chauhan and the Battles of Tarain. Also, know the
cultural achievements (Khajuraho Temples, Raja Bhoja).
·
Cholas: Rajaraja
I and Rajendra
I are key. Their conquests, naval power, and especially
their administrative
system (Uttaramerur Inscription) are high-yield topics.
·
Bhakti Movement: The Alvars and Nayanars and their contribution to regional
language and culture.
·
Architecture: Link each dynasty to its architectural masterpiece (Cholas
- Brihadeshwara; Chandellas - Khajuraho; Rashtrakutas - Kailasa Temple,
Ellora).
Phase 2:
The Delhi Sultanate (1206 - 1526 AD)
This period is defined by five dynasties
that ruled from Delhi.
|
Dynasty |
Period |
Founder |
Important Rulers & Key Points |
|
Slave (Mamluk) |
1206-1290 |
Qutb-ud-din Aibak |
Qutb-ud-din Aibak: Founded,
known as Lakh Baksh (giver
of lakhs). Started Qutb
Minar. |
|
Khilji |
1290-1320 |
Jalal-ud-din Khilji |
Alauddin Khilji: Most
powerful ruler. |
|
Tughlaq |
1320-1414 |
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq |
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq: Known for
his controversial
experiments: |
|
Sayyid |
1414-1451 |
Khizr Khan |
Ruled as viceroys of Timur. Period of
instability. |
|
Lodhi |
1451-1526 |
Bahlol Lodhi |
Sikandar Lodhi: Founded Agra
city. |
Important Officials in
Delhi Sultanate:
·
Wazir: Prime Minister/Head of Finance.
·
Diwan-i-Arz: Military department.
·
Diwan-i-Insha: Correspondence department.
·
Diwan-i-Risalat: Department for religious matters.
foundational
dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
The Slave
(Mamluk) Dynasty (1206-1290 AD)
Background: The dynasty is
called "Slave" because its founders were former slaves of Muhammad
Ghori. In the medieval Islamic world, slaves (Mamluks) could rise to high
military and administrative ranks based on merit. This dynasty laid the
administrative and geographic foundation for the Delhi Sultanate.
Rulers of
the Slave Dynasty (in chronological order)
1. Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206 – 1210 AD)
·
Founder of the Dynasty: A trusted slave and general of
Muhammad Ghori.
·
Title: Known as "Lakh
Baksh" (giver of lakhs) for his immense generosity.
·
Capital: Initially established his capital at Lahore.
·
Political Achievements:
o Consolidated the
Turkish conquests in North India after Ghori's death.
o Subdued Rajput chiefs
in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and areas like Meerut, Aligarh, and Delhi.
·
Architecture:
o Began the construction
of the Qutb Minar in
Delhi (in memory of Sufi saint Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki). The project
was completed by his successor, Iltutmish.
o Built the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in
Delhi (the first mosque in India).
o Built the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra mosque
in Ajmer.
·
Death: Died in 1210 AD after falling from his horse while
playing Chaugan (a
form of polo).
2. Aram Shah (1210 – 1211 AD)
·
Successor of Aibak, but was an incapable ruler.
·
His brief reign was marked by confusion and political
instability.
·
He was defeated and succeeded by Iltutmish, Aibak's
son-in-law.
3. Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1211 – 1236 AD)
·
The Real Founder of the Delhi Sultanate. He transformed a
loosely held collection of territories into a powerful, centralized empire.
·
Relation: He was the son-in-law and a trusted slave of Qutb-ud-din
Aibak.
·
Political and Military Achievements:
o Saved from Mongols: He saved the
Sultanate from the threat of Chengiz
Khan, the Mongol leader, who was pursuing Jalal-ud-din
Mangabarni, the Shah of Khwarizm (1221 AD). Iltutmish wisely refused to give
Mangabarni refuge, avoiding a direct Mongol invasion.
o Consolidation: Reasserted
control over the lost territories of Lahore, Multan, and Bengal. Conquered
Ranthambore, Mandawar, and the fort of Gwalior.
o Capital: Shifted the
capital from Lahore
to Delhi, establishing it as the premier political center.
·
Administrative Reforms:
o Introduction of the
Iqta System: Organized the empire into large land grants called Iqtas, which were
assigned to nobles and officers (Muqtis or Iqtadars) for revenue
collection and administration. This became the backbone of the Sultanate's
administration.
o Currency Reform: Introduced two
basic types of coins—the Silver
Tanka and the Copper
Jital. This standardized currency system facilitated trade and
economy.
o Created the
'Chahalgani': Also known as Turkan-i-Chahalgani or The Forty, this was a
group of forty powerful, loyal Turkish nobles who formed the core of his
administration and military.
·
Recognition: Received a formal letter of investiture (Mansur) from
the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad in 1229, which legitimized his rule in the
Islamic world.
·
Architecture: Completed the construction of the Qutb Minar.
4. Rukn-ud-din Firoz Shah (1236 AD)
·
Son of Iltutmish, but was incompetent and indulgent.
·
His mother, Shah Turkan, wielded actual power.
·
Was deposed and executed after ruling for just about seven
months.
5. Razia Sultana (1236 – 1240 AD)
·
First and only woman ruler of the Delhi
Sultanate.
·
Accession: Iltutmish had nominated her as his successor, recognizing
her capability.
·
Key Actions & Reforms:
o Abandoned the female
attire and purdah (veil), presiding over court affairs in open durbar wearing a
cloak and hat (qaba and kulah).
o Appointed an Abyssinian
(Habshi) slave, Yaqut,
to the high post of Amir-i-Akhur (Master
of the Stables). This angered the Turkish nobles.
·
Reasons for her Downfall:
1.
Gender Prejudice: The Turkish nobility (Chahalgani) was not ready to accept
a female ruler.
2.
Favoritism: Her appointment of Yaqut was seen as a challenge to the
Turkish nobles' monopoly on power.
3.
Conspiracy: The governor of Bhatinda, Malik Altunia,
rebelled against her. Razia marched to suppress the revolt but was defeated and
imprisoned.
·
End: She later married Altunia to gain his support to reclaim
the throne, but both were defeated and killed by her brother's supporters near
Kaithal in 1240 AD.
6. Muiz-ud-din Bahram Shah (1240 – 1242 AD) & Ala-ud-din
Masud Shah (1242 – 1246 AD)
·
Weak rulers who were puppets in the hands of the Council of Forty (Chahalgani).
·
The power of the nobles increased significantly, leading to
instability.
·
Both were deposed and killed.
7. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah (1246 – 1266 AD)
·
The youngest son of Iltutmish.
·
He was a pious and learned man with little interest in administration.
·
The de
facto power was wielded by his powerful father-in-law and
Prime Minister, Ghiyas-ud-din
Balban.
·
During his reign, Balban effectively managed the administration,
suppressed rebellions, and kept the Mongols at bay.
8. Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266 – 1287 AD)
·
The last significant ruler of the Slave
Dynasty. He first served as Naib (deputy)
under Nasir-ud-din Mahmud and then took the throne after his death.
·
His Reign was a Fight to Restore the Prestige of the Crown.
·
Theory of Kingship (Sovereignty):
o Propagated the "Divine Right of Kings" theory.
He took the title Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow
of God on Earth).
o He introduced the
Persian court rituals like Sijda (prostration)
and Paibos (kissing
the monarch's feet) to create awe and reverence for the Sultan.
·
'Blood and Iron' Policy:
o A policy of ruthless
severity to suppress internal rebellions and external threats.
o He decisively crushed
the rebellion of
the powerful 'Forty' (Chahalgani), breaking their power.
o Severely punished
rebels in the Doab and Mewat regions.
·
Military and Defense:
o Created a strong,
centralized army under his direct control.
o Strengthened the
frontier defenses to guard against Mongol
invasions. He established a separate defense department, Diwan-i-Arz.
·
Espionage System: Established a highly efficient network of spies to keep a
watch on the activities of the nobles and governors.
After Balban (1287 – 1290 AD)
·
Balban's successors, Kaiqubad and Kaimurs, were weak
and incompetent.
·
The dynasty ended when Jalal-ud-din Khilji overthrew Kaiqubad
and established the Khilji
Dynasty in 1290 AD.
Important
Administrative Terms (Coined in this Period)
·
Iqta System: Land revenue assignment system.
·
Muqti/Iqtadar: The holder of an Iqta.
·
Silver Tanka & Copper Jital: Standardized
currency.
·
Chahalgani/Turkan-i-Chahalgani: The Council of
Forty nobles.
·
Diwan-i-Arz: Military department (strengthened by Balban).
·
Naib: Deputy Sultan (the title held by Balban).
Crucial
Exam Takeaways (Must Remember)
1.
Founders: Qutb-ud-din
Aibak founded it; Iltutmish consolidated it.
2.
Unique Ruler: Razia
Sultana - her policies, reasons for downfall.
3.
Strongest Ruler: Balban -
his 'Blood and Iron' policy and 'Theory of Kingship'.
4.
Key Events: Mongol
threat during Iltutmish's reign; the rise and fall of
the Chahalgani.
5.
Architecture: Qutb
Minar and Quwwat-ul-Islam
Mosque.
6.
Titles: Aibak - Lakh
Baksh; Balban - Zil-i-Ilahi.
7.
Administration: Introduction of the Iqta System and standard coinage.
The Khilji
Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)
Background: The Khiljis were
of Turkic origin but had assimilated into Afghan culture after long settlement
in Afghanistan. Their rise to power marked a shift in the Delhi Sultanate from
a "Turkic" nobility to a more "Afghan" and inclusive
nobility, breaking the monopoly of the Turkish nobility (the Chahalgani).
Rulers of
the Khilji Dynasty
1. Jalal-ud-din Khilji (1290 - 1296 AD)
·
Founder of the Dynasty: He overthrew the last weak Slave
ruler, Kaiqubad.
·
Accession: At the age of 70, he was proclaimed Sultan in a
public darbar at
Kilokhari (near Delhi).
·
Nature of Rule: Known for his leniency
and mild policies, which were often seen as weakness by his
contemporaries.
·
Key Events:
o Successfully repelled
a Mongol invasion led
by Abdullah near Jalandhar.
o His nephew and
son-in-law, Alauddin
Khilji, then the governor of Kara, raided Devagiri (Yadava Kingdom) in
1296 without his permission, amassing immense wealth.
o Jalal-ud-din was
treacherously murdered
by Alauddin near Kara, who invited him for a feast and had
him killed.
2. Alauddin Khilji (1296 - 1316 AD)
·
The Most Powerful Sultan of the Dynasty. His reign marked
the zenith of the Khilji power.
·
Ambition: He aimed to become a World Conqueror like Alexander the
Great (Sikandar-i-Sani).
A. Military Conquests
& Expansion:
|
Region / Kingdom |
Year |
Key Points & Outcome |
|
Gujarat |
1299 |
- First major conquest. |
|
Ranthambore |
1301 |
- Ruler: Hammir Deva. |
|
Chittor |
1303 |
- Ruler: Ratan Singh. |
|
Malwa |
1305 |
- Captured by Ain-ul-Mulk Multani. |
|
Deccan & South
India |
1307-1313 |
- Led by his slave-general Malik Kafur. |
B. Administrative
Reforms (Very Important for Exams):
Alauddin was a pragmatic ruler who
introduced reforms to maintain a large permanent standing army and control the
nobility.
1.
Military Reforms:
o Permanent Standing
Army: Maintained
a large, centrally paid standing army to deal with Mongols and for continuous
campaigns.
o Dagh System (Branding
of Horses): To prevent the substitution of good horses with
low-quality ones by soldiers.
o Chehra System
(Descriptive Roll of Soldiers): Maintained detailed records of soldiers to prevent fraud
and ensure accountability.
2.
Market Reforms (Economic Regulations):
o Objective: To control the
prices of essential goods and maintain a large army on low salaries.
o Key Officials:
§ Diwan-i-Riyasat: Minister of
Commerce.
§ Shahna-i-Mandi: Market
Superintendent.
o Key Measures:
§ Fixed prices for a wide
range of commodities (grains, cloth, sugar, etc.).
§ Established
state-controlled granaries (sara-i-adl)
to prevent hoarding.
§ Strict punishments for
black-marketeering and hoarding.
§ Regulated the supply of
goods from the villages to the cities.
§ Paid salaries in cash
to soldiers and officials.
3.
Land Revenue Reforms:
o Increased the land
revenue (Kharaj)
to 50% of
the produce.
o Conducted a land survey to
assess the area under cultivation.
o Banned intermediaries
and collected revenue directly from the peasants.
4.
Nobility & Espionage:
o Adopted a harsh policy
towards the nobles. Confiscated wealth and endowments (waqf) of the nobles and
clergy.
o Prohibited social
gatherings and wine drinking to prevent conspiracies.
o Maintained a highly
efficient espionage
system to report on the activities of nobles and
officials.
5.
Religious Policy:
o Adopted a policy
of "Kingship
knows no Kinship". He separated religion from politics and
refused to be bound by the orthodox Ulema (clerics).
o He saw himself as the
state's ultimate authority.
3. Later Rulers and Decline (1316 - 1320 AD)
·
After Alauddin's death, his son Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (1316-20)
seized the throne after blinding and killing his elder brother.
·
He was a weak and debauched ruler who reversed many of his
father's policies.
·
He was murdered by his favorite general, Khusrau Khan, a
Baradu (a converted Hindu).
·
Khusrau Khan's brief rule (a few months in 1320) ended when Ghazi Malik, the
governor of Dipalpur, defeated and killed him, establishing the Tughlaq Dynasty.
Important
Officials & Personalities
·
Malik Kafur: A slave turned chief general, led the Deccan campaigns.
Titled Malik Naib (Viceroy).
After Alauddin's death, he tried to control the succession but was killed.
·
Amir Khusrau: The legendary poet, known as the "Parrot of India."
He was a court poet for Alauddin. He invented musical instruments like
the Sitar and
is credited with the origin of Qawwali.
He wrote in Persian and Hindavi.
·
Zia-ud-din Barani: The famous historian who wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi,
a primary source for this period.
Crucial
Exam Takeaways (Must Remember)
1.
Alauddin Khilji is the Key: Focus 90% of your
preparation on his reign.
2.
Military Campaigns: Know the sequence—Gujarat ->
Ranthambore/Chittor -> Deccan (Malik Kafur's role).
3.
Administrative Reforms (A High-Yield Topic):
o Market Reforms: Diwan-i-Riyasat, price
control, state granaries.
o Military Reforms: Dagh and Chehra.
o Land Revenue: 50% of produce.
4.
Key Personalities: Malik
Kafur (the General), Amir Khusrau (the Poet), Zia-ud-din Barani (the
Historian).
5.
Policy: His policy of keeping the Ulema at bay and his concept of
kingship.
6.
End of Dynasty: Khusrau Khan's coup and the establishment of the Tughlaq
dynasty by Ghazi Malik (Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq).
The Tughlaq
Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)
Background: Founded by Ghazi Malik, who took
the title Ghiyas-ud-din
Tughlaq, after ending the chaotic rule of the last Khilji
ruler, Khusrau Khan. The dynasty is noted for its intellectual rulers,
controversial experiments, and the catastrophic invasion of Timur.
Rulers of
the Tughlaq Dynasty
1. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320 - 1325 AD)
·
Founder of the Dynasty: A capable governor and military
commander under the Khiljis.
·
Policy: Adopted a conciliatory policy towards the nobles who were
alienated by Alauddin's harsh measures.
·
Administrative Reforms:
o Reformed the land
revenue system, making it more systematic. He was against excessive taxation.
o Appointed official
spies to keep a check on the officials.
·
Construction:
o Built the fortified
city of Tughlaqabad in
Delhi, which served as his capital.
·
Death: He died under mysterious circumstances in 1325 after a
pavilion built by his son, Jauna
Khan (the future Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq), collapsed on him
upon his return from a Bengal campaign. Many historians suspect foul play.
2. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325 - 1351 AD)
·
The Most Enigmatic and Controversial Sultan. He was a
brilliant scholar, logician, and a visionary, but his policies were often
impractical and led to widespread suffering.
·
Key Projects/Experiments (Crucial for Exams):
1.
Taxation in the Doab (1326-27):
§ Plan: To increase
revenue, he sharply increased the land tax in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna Doab
region.
§ Failure: This coincided
with a severe famine. The excessive demand led to widespread peasant revolts, abandonment
of villages, and a collapse of the agrarian economy. The order was eventually
withdrawn.
2.
Transfer of Capital (1327):
§ Plan: To establish a
more central capital for his expanding empire (which now included the Deccan),
he ordered the capital to be moved from Delhi to Daulatabad (in
present-day Maharashtra).
§ Failure: The entire
population of Delhi was forced to march 1500 km. The journey was disastrous,
and many died. The Deccan proved difficult to control from the north, and the
capital was eventually shifted back to Delhi. This move alienated both the
people of Delhi and the old nobility.
3.
Introduction of Token Currency (1329-30):
§ Plan: Facing a treasury
shortage due to his campaigns and experiments, he introduced bronze and copper
coins, declaring them equal in value to the silver tanka.
§ Failure: The state lacked
the technology to prevent forgery. As the Sultan did not maintain a monopoly on
coinage, everyone started minting coins at home, leading to hyperinflation and
a collapse of trade. The token currency was withdrawn, and the government
exchanged it for gold and silver coins, further draining the treasury.
4.
Planned Khorasan & Qarachil Expeditions:
§ He planned a massive,
unrealistic expedition to conquer Khorasan (Central Asia), which was abandoned.
§ The Qarachil expedition in
the Kumaon Hills (Himalayan region) ended in a disastrous defeat for his army.
·
Ibn Battuta: The famous Moroccan traveler visited India during his
reign and wrote the Rihla,
an important account of his rule and society.
·
Legacy: His reign, though full of failures, showcased a desire for
innovation and a pan-Indian empire. However, it severely weakened the
Sultanate's economy and stability.
3. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 - 1388 AD)
·
Cousin of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. He ascended the
throne in a context of widespread rebellions and a bankrupt treasury.
·
Policy of Appeasement: His goal was to stabilize the empire
by appeasing the nobility, the army, and the orthodox Ulema. He reversed many
of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq's harsh policies.
·
Administrative and Welfare Reforms:
1.
Religious Policies:
§ Reimposed Jizya (a tax on
non-Muslims) and extended it to Brahmins who
were previously exempt.
§ Promoted the conversion
of Hindus to Islam.
§ Banned practices
considered un-Islamic.
2.
Military Reforms: Abandoned the practice of a large, centrally paid standing
army. Instead, he introduced a system where soldiers were paid through land
assignments.
3.
Revenue Reforms:
§ Officially prohibited
torture (mutilation of
limbs) for revenue collection.
§ Imposed new taxes sanctioned
by Islamic law:
§ Kharaj: Land tax (1/10 of
the produce)
§ Zakat: Tax on Muslims
for charity
§ Jizya: Tax on
non-Muslims
4.
Public Works:
§ Built over 300 towns
(e.g., Firozabad in
Delhi, Hissar, Fatehabad, Jaunpur).
§ Constructed
numerous canals for
irrigation:
§ From Sutlej to Ghaggar.
§ From Yamuna to Hissar.
§ Built many rest houses,
hospitals, and mosques.
5.
Department for Slaves: Established Diwan-i-Bandagan (Department
of Slaves), employing nearly 180,000 slaves for various tasks.
6.
Cultural Efforts: Collected and translated many Sanskrit manuscripts. He
wrote his autobiography, Futuhat-i-Firozshahi.
·
Legacy: While his reign brought stability and prosperity for a
while, his policy of appeasement and granting hereditary land assignments to
nobles weakened the central authority, leading to the rise of independent
kingdoms after his death.
4. Later Tughlaqs (1388 - 1414 AD)
·
After Firoz Shah's death, a War of Succession broke out among
his sons and grandsons.
·
The dynasty was plagued by weak rulers, constant infighting, and
the rise of powerful independent kingdoms like Jaunpur, Malwa, and Gujarat.
·
This period of instability culminated in the invasion of Timur in
1398.
The Timurid
Invasion (1398)
·
Invader: Timur (Tamerlane),
the Turkic-Mongol ruler of Central Asia.
·
Ruler at the time: Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Tughlaq.
·
Event: Timur invaded India, citing the tolerance of idolatry by
Muslim Sultans. He ruthlessly sacked and plundered Delhi, leading to a massive
massacre and destruction.
·
Consequence: This invasion delivered the final blow to the Tughlaq
dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate. The treasury was looted, the army destroyed,
and the Sultanate's prestige was shattered. It left North India in a political
vacuum, leading to the rise of the Sayyid
Dynasty.
Crucial
Exam Takeaways (Must Remember)
1.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq's Experiments: Memorize the four
key projects—Taxation
in Doab, Transfer of Capital, Token Currency, Khorasan/Qarachil Expeditions—and
the reasons for their failure. This is a very high-yielding topic.
2.
Firoz Shah's Reforms: Focus on his appeasement policy, reimposition of Jizya, public works (canals, towns),
and the Diwan-i-Bandagan.
3.
Architecture:
o Ghiyas-ud-din: Tughlaqabad Fort (massive,
cyclopean walls).
o Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq: Adilabad Fort and
the walls of Daulatabad.
o Firoz Shah: Firoz Shah Kotla (in
Delhi), Hauz Khas complex,
and his Ashokan
Pillar installations.
4.
Key Event: The Invasion
of Timur (1398) and its devastating impact on the Delhi
Sultanate.
5.
Important Personalities: Ibn Battuta and his account, Rihla.
6.
Reason for Decline: Weak successors, the war of
succession after Firoz Shah, and the Timurid invasion.
The Sayyid
Dynasty (1414-1451 AD)
Background: The Sayyid
Dynasty ruled Delhi in the aftermath of the catastrophic Timurid Invasion (1398).
The once-mighty Delhi Sultanate was reduced to a small kingdom, with its power
and prestige shattered. The Sayyids are considered the weakest of the five
dynasties, acting more as nominal rulers while real power lay with provincial
governors.
Founder and
Claim to Legitimacy
·
Founder: Khizr
Khan (1414 - 1421 AD)
·
Claim to Power: Khizr Khan was the Timurid-appointed governor of Multan
and Delhi. He did not take the title of 'Sultan' but ruled as 'Rayat-i-Ala' (Representative
of the Higher Authority), acknowledging the suzerainty of Timur's son, Shah Rukh.
·
Lineage: The dynasty is called "Sayyid" as Khizr Khan
claimed descent from the Prophet Muhammad, a claim used to garner religious
legitimacy.
Rulers of
the Sayyid Dynasty (in chronological order)
1. Khizr Khan (1414 - 1421 AD)
·
Primary Goal: To re-establish the authority of Delhi over the
surrounding regions.
·
Political Situation: He inherited a shrunken kingdom.
Independent kingdoms like Jaunpur,
Malwa, Gujarat, and Bengal had
emerged and were often hostile.
·
Actions:
o He spent his entire
reign trying to suppress rebellions and regain control over the Doab, Katehr
(Rohilkhand), and parts of Punjab.
o He managed to restore a
semblance of order in the immediate vicinity of Delhi but failed to subdue the
major new kingdoms.
·
Legacy: He laid the fragile foundation upon which his successors
tried to build.
2. Mubarak Shah (1421 - 1434 AD)
·
The Most Capable Ruler of the dynasty. He was the son of
Khizr Khan and was the first in the dynasty to adopt the title of 'Sultan'.
·
Challenges: Faced numerous rebellions from local chiefs (like the
Khokhars in Punjab) and the constant threat from the Sultan of Jaunpur.
·
Achievements:
o He successfully quelled
many internal revolts and defended his territory against Jaunpur.
o He founded a new
city, Mubarakabad,
on the banks of the Yamuna.
·
Death: He was assassinated by
a conspiracy of disgruntled nobles in his own court, highlighting the extreme
political instability of the time.
3. Muhammad Shah (1434 - 1445 AD)
·
A Weak Ruler. His reign was marked by increasing political
fragmentation.
·
Key Event: The powerful governor of Lahore and Sirhind, Bahlol Lodhi, became
the de facto power broker. Muhammad Shah became heavily dependent on Bahlol
Lodhi for military support, especially against the Sultan of Jaunpur.
·
Legacy: His reign solidified the power of the Lodhi faction,
paving the way for their eventual takeover.
4. Alam Shah (1445 - 1451 AD)
·
The Last Ruler. He is considered the weakest of the Sayyid rulers.
·
Voluntary Abdication: After a reign of just five years,
plagued by incompetence and a lack of interest in administration, he voluntarily retired to Badaun in 1451.
·
End of the Dynasty: With Alam Shah in Badaun, the throne
in Delhi was effectively vacant. The nobles of Delhi, led by Hamid Khan,
invited Bahlol
Lodhi to take control. Bahlol Lodhi ascended the throne in
1451, establishing the Lodhi
Dynasty.
o Notably, Alam Shah
lived peacefully in Badaun until his death, even after the dynasty had ended.
Why is the
Sayyid Dynasty Significant?
Despite its weakness, the dynasty is
important for several reasons:
1.
Continuity of the Sultanate: It provided a
crucial, albeit weak, line of succession after the Timurid invasion, preventing
a complete political collapse in Delhi.
2.
Transition to the Lodhis: It acted as a transitional phase
from the Tughlaq collapse to the establishment of the Afghan Lodhi dynasty.
3.
Symbolic Authority: The Sayyids, with their claimed
lineage, provided a figurehead of legitimacy that the powerful Afghan nobles
initially needed.
Crucial
Exam Takeaways (Must Remember)
For competitive exams, the focus is on key
facts and the dynasty's role in the larger narrative of the Delhi Sultanate's
decline.
1.
Founder: Khizr
Khan, who ruled as Rayat-i-Ala.
2.
Most Capable Ruler: Mubarak Shah (the one who took the
title 'Sultan' and was assassinated).
3.
Last Ruler: Alam
Shah, known for his voluntary retirement to Badaun.
4.
Key Reason for Decline: Extreme political instability, the
rise of powerful independent kingdoms, and the weakening of central authority.
5.
End of the Dynasty: The nobles invited Bahlol Lodhi to
take the throne in 1451
AD, establishing the Lodhi Dynasty.
6.
Contemporary Kingdoms: Be aware of the powerful states that
emerged during this period: Jaunpur,
Malwa, Gujarat, Bengal.
The Lodhi
Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)
Background: The Lodhis were
of Afghan origin,
marking a shift from the previous Turkic ruling class. Founded by Bahlol Lodhi after
the weak Sayyid dynasty ended, the Lodhis made a final attempt to consolidate
the Delhi Sultanate. Their rule ended with the First Battle of Panipat in
1526, paving the way for the Mughal Empire.
Rulers of
the Lodhi Dynasty (in chronological order)
1. Bahlol Lodhi (1451 - 1489 AD)
·
Founder of the Dynasty. He was the Governor of Sirhind and
was invited by the nobles to take the throne of Delhi.
·
Policy of Conciliation: His primary challenge was to control
the rebellious Afghan nobles. He adopted a policy of conciliation and friendship with
them.
o He never sat on the
throne in front of his nobles; instead, he sat on a carpet with them to
maintain a sense of equality (primus
inter pares - first among equals).
o Refused to call himself
the 'King' (Padshah)
and used the title Shah-i-Shargh (King
of the East).
·
Consolidation: He successfully reconquered the Doab region and
annexed the Jaunpur
Sultanate after a long struggle, significantly expanding
his territory.
2. Sikandar Lodhi (1489 - 1517 AD)
·
Son of Bahlol Lodhi. He is considered the greatest and most capable ruler
of the dynasty.
·
Administrative Reforms:
o Introduced a strict
system of accountability for his officials.
o Standardized the
measurement of land using the Gaz-i-Sikandari (Sikandar's
yardstick) for revenue assessment.
·
Religious Policy:
o Known for his orthodox religious policies.
He re-imposed the Jizya tax
on non-Muslims.
o Reportedly destroyed
Hindu temples and banned women from visiting the graves of saints.
·
Patronage:
o A learned man himself,
he patronized art and literature. He wrote Persian verses under the pen
name "Gulrukhi".
o Shifted his capital
from Delhi to Agra in
1504 to better control the central regions and guard against Rajput threats. He
is credited with founding the modern city of Agra.
·
Expansion: He brought parts of Bihar under his control and maintained
a firm hold over his kingdom.
3. Ibrahim Lodhi (1517 - 1526 AD)
·
Son of Sikandar Lodhi. The last Sultan of the dynasty.
·
Nature of Rule: He was arrogant,
strict, and suspicious by nature.
·
Key Mistake: He abandoned his grandfather's policy of conciliation and
treated the Afghan nobles with contempt, trying to assert absolute power. This
alienated the powerful Afghan chiefs.
·
Rebellions:
o His own uncle, Alam Khan Lodhi,
conspired against him.
o The Governor of
Punjab, Daulat
Khan Lodhi, feeling threatened, invited the ruler of
Kabul, Babur,
to invade India.
o The Rajput ruler Rana Sanga of
Mewar also saw an opportunity to defeat Ibrahim.
·
The End: Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated and killed by Babur in
the First Battle
of Panipat in 1526. This battle marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate and
the beginning of the Mughal Empire in India.
Administration
under the Lodhis
·
The Iqta
system continued, but it became more hereditary.
·
They tried to maintain a centralized administration, but
Ibrahim's policies led to its failure.
·
They continued the use of the silver Tanka as
the standard coin.
Architecture
and Culture
·
The Lodhi period saw the development of a distinct Indo-Afghan architectural
style.
·
Key Features:
o Use of double domes.
o Construction of tombs set in the
middle of large gardens.
o Use of grey sandstone and plaster.
·
Examples:
o Bara Gumbad & Shib Gumbad in
Lodhi Gardens, Delhi.
o Tomb of Sikandar Lodhi in Lodhi Gardens.
o Mosque of Moth ki Masjid, built by Sikandar
Lodhi's minister, Miyan Bhuwa.
Reasons for
the Downfall of the Lodhi Dynasty
1.
Ibrahim's Harsh Policy: His arrogant treatment of the
powerful Afghan nobles led to internal conspiracies and disloyalty.
2.
Weak Military Technology: Ibrahim's army relied on elephants
and outdated warfare tactics, while Babur used advanced artillery (cannons) and
the Tulghuma (flanking)
strategy.
3.
Financial Exhaustion: The treasury was depleted due to
constant campaigns and administration.
4.
Rise of Powerful Rivals: The emergence of powerful states
like Gujarat and the ambitions of Rana Sanga further weakened the Sultanate.
5.
Babur's Superiority: Babur was an experienced military
commander with a highly motivated and well-trained army.
Crucial
Exam Takeaways (Must Remember)
1.
First & Last: Bahlol
Lodhi was the founder; Ibrahim Lodhi was
the last Sultan.
2.
Greatest Ruler: Sikandar
Lodhi – remember his reforms: Gaz-i-Sikandari,
founding of Agra,
and his pen name Gulrukhi.
3.
Key Battle: First
Battle of Panipat (1526) – fought between Ibrahim Lodhi and Babur. Result: End of
Delhi Sultanate, beginning of Mughal Empire.
4.
Reason for Fall: Ibrahim
Lodhi's conflict with his Afghan nobles is the most
critical internal reason.
5.
Architecture: The dynasty is known for the Gumbad (Dome) style
in the Lodhi
Gardens of Delhi.
6.
Identity: They were the only Afghan dynasty of the Delhi
Sultanate.
Phase 3:
The Mughal Empire (1526 - 1857 AD)
A pivotal era known for its centralized
administration, art, and architecture.
|
Ruler |
Reign |
Key Events & Contributions |
|
Babur |
1526-1530 |
- 1st Battle of Panipat (1526): Defeated
Ibrahim Lodi. |
|
Humayun |
1530-1540, |
- Defeated by Sher Shah Suri (an
Afghan ruler) at the Battle
of Chausa (1539) and Battle of Kannauj (1540). |
|
Sher Shah Suri
(Sur Empire) |
1540-1545 |
- Administrative Reforms: Introduced
a lucid land revenue system, Rupiya (silver
coin), built Grand
Trunk Road (from Sonargaon to Peshawar). |
|
Akbar |
1556-1605 |
- 2nd Battle of Panipat (1556): Bairam
Khan (Akbar's regent) defeated Hemu. |
|
Jahangir |
1605-1627 |
- Married Nur Jahan (real
power behind the throne). |
|
Shah Jahan |
1628-1658 |
- Golden Age of Mughal Architecture: Taj Mahal (Agra), Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid (Delhi), Peacock Throne. |
|
Aurangzeb |
1658-1707 |
- Reinstated Jizya and destroyed
many temples. |
|
Later Mughals |
1707-1857 |
- Period of rapid decline after
Aurangzeb's death. |
Mughal Administration:
·
Mansabdari System: Officials (Mansabdars) held ranks (Mansab) denoting military
and civil status. Rank was Zat (personal)
and Sawar (cavalrymen).
·
Land Revenue System: Todar Mal's system under Akbar
(Zabti/Bandobast system).
The Mughal
Empire overview
The Mughal Empire was the last great
imperial power in India before the establishment of British colonial rule. It
is known for its centralized administration, cultural synthesis, and
magnificent architecture.
Foundational
Period: Babur to Humayun
1. Babur (1526 - 1530)
·
Founder of the Mughal Empire.
·
Battles:
o First Battle of Panipat
(1526): Defeated Ibrahim
Lodhi using artillery and
the Ottoman war
tactic Tulghuma (flanking
the enemy). This ended the Delhi Sultanate.
o Battle of Khanwa
(1527): Defeated Rana
Sanga of Mewar. Established Mughal supremacy over Rajputs.
o Battle of Chanderi
(1528): Defeated the Rajput chief Medini Rai.
o Battle of Ghaghra
(1529): Defeated the Afghans.
·
Contributions:
o Introduced gunpowder
and artillery in India.
o Wrote his
autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama)
in Chagatai
Turkish.
o Laid out the first Persian-style Charbagh garden in
India at Panipat and Aram Bagh in Agra.
2. Humayun (1530 - 1540, 1555 - 1556)
·
Lost the empire and regained it.
·
Challenges: Faced a formidable foe in Sher Shah Suri.
·
Battles:
o Battle of Chausa
(1539): Defeated by Sher Shah Suri.
o Battle of Kannauj
(1540): Decisively defeated, forcing him to flee India.
·
Exile & Return: After 15 years of exile in Persia,
he recaptured Delhi in 1555 with the help of the Persian Safavid dynasty.
·
Death: Died in 1556 by falling from the stairs of his library (Din Panah) in Delhi.
·
His sister, Gulbadan Begum, wrote Humayun-Nama.
The Sur
Interregnum (1540 - 1555)
·
Sher Shah Suri (1540 - 1545): An able
administrator who ruled in Humayun's absence.
o Administrative Reforms:
§ Introduced a lucid land revenue system (based
on measurement of land).
§ Introduced the Rupiya (silver
coin) and the Dam (copper
coin).
§ Built the Grand Trunk Road (GT Road) from
Sonargaon (Bangladesh) to Peshawar (Pakistan).
§ Reorganized the empire
into Sarkars and Parganas.
§ Built the Rohtas Fort (in
present-day Pakistan).
The Golden
Age: Akbar to Shah Jahan
3. Akbar (1556 - 1605)
·
The real architect of the Mughal Empire.
·
Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Fought
against Hemu (Vikramaditya),
the Hindu general of the Suris. Bairam Khan (Akbar's regent) led the Mughals to
victory.
·
Expansion & Policy:
o Conquered Malwa (1562),
Gondwana (1564), Chittor (1568), Ranthambore, Kalinjar, Gujarat (1572), Bengal
(1576), Kashmir (1586), Sindh (1591), and parts of the Deccan.
o Rajput Policy: Established
matrimonial alliances with Rajput families (e.g., married a princess of Amber).
Appointed Rajputs to high posts (e.g., Raja Todar Mal, Raja Man Singh).
·
Religious Policy:
o Abolished the Jizya tax and
the pilgrimage tax.
o Founded a syncretic
religion called Din-i-Ilahi (Divine
Monotheism) in 1582.
o Promoted Sulh-i-Kul (Universal
Peace and Harmony).
·
Administration:
o Introduced the Mansabdari System –
a ranking system for officials with both military and civil responsibilities.
Ranks were denoted by Zat (personal
status) and Sawar (cavalrymen).
o Land Revenue Reforms: With his finance
minister, Raja
Todar Mal, he established the Zabti or Ain-i-Dahsala system
(revenue based on a 10-year average of produce). Land was measured using
the Ilahi Gaz.
·
Culture:
o Built Fatehpur Sikri (his
capital), Buland Darwaza, Jama Masjid, and Humayun's Tomb.
o His Navratnas (Nine Jewels) included
Birbal, Tansen, Todar Mal, and Abul Fazl (who wrote Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama).
4. Jahangir (1605 - 1627)
·
Consolidated the empire.
·
Notable Events:
o Married Nur Jahan (originally
named Mehr-un-Nissa) in 1611, who wielded significant influence.
o Executed the fifth Sikh
Guru, Guru Arjan
Dev, leading to Sikh-Mughal tensions.
·
Foreign Relations:
o Captain William Hawkins (1608) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615)
visited his court for trade concessions for the British East India Company.
·
Art: The Mughal painting style reached its zenith under him.
·
Built the Shalimar
Bagh in Kashmir and the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah in
Agra.
5. Shah Jahan (1627 - 1658)
·
The zenith of Mughal architecture.
·
Military Campaigns: Suppressed rebellions in Ahmednagar,
Bijapur, and Golconda.
·
War of Succession (1657-58): His four sons
(Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb, Murad) fought for the throne. Aurangzeb emerged
victorious, imprisoning Shah Jahan in the Agra Fort.
·
Architecture:
o Taj Mahal (Agra) – Tomb for
his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
o Red Fort and Jama Masjid (Delhi).
o Moti Masjid (Agra Fort).
o Shalimar Bagh (Lahore).
o The Peacock Throne was
built for him.
Period of Expansion
and Decline: Aurangzeb to Later Mughals
6. Aurangzeb (Alamgir) (1658 - 1707)
·
The empire reached its greatest territorial extent but began its
decline.
·
Religious Policy:
o Reimposed Jizya (1679).
o Destroyed many Hindu
temples.
o Banned music and art in
the royal court.
·
Expansion & Rebellions:
o Annexed Bijapur (1686)
and Golconda (1687).
o Faced lifelong
conflicts with the Marathas under Chhatrapati Shivaji and
his successors.
o Faced major
rebellions: Jat
rebellion, Sikh
rebellion (executed Guru Tegh Bahadur, the 9th Sikh
Guru), Satnami
rebellion, and Rajput
rebellion.
·
Titles: Zinda
Pir (Living Saint). He died in 1707 in Ahmednagar.
Later
Mughals (1707 - 1857)
·
Rapid Decline: After Aurangzeb, the empire rapidly disintegrated due to
weak successors, foreign invasions, and the rise of regional powers.
·
Key Invasions:
o Nadir Shah's Invasion
(1739): The Persian invader sacked Delhi and carried away
the Koh-i-Noor
diamond and the Peacock Throne.
o Ahmed Shah Abdali's
Invasions (1748-1767): The Afghan invader defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
·
The Mughal Empire effectively ended after the British suppressed the Revolt of 1857 and
exiled the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur
Shah Zafar.
Mughal
Administration (High-Yield Topic)
·
Central Government:
o Emperor: Absolute head.
o Wazir (Vakil): Prime Minister,
head of revenue and finance.
o Mir Bakshi: Head of military
department, in charge of mansabdars.
o Sadr-us-Sudur: In charge of
religious and charitable affairs.
o Qazi-ul-Qazat: Chief Justice.
·
Provincial Government: Empire divided into Subahs (provinces)
under a Subahdar.
·
Mansabdari System: The bureaucratic framework. The ranks determined salary
and military obligations.
Crucial
Exam Takeaways (Must Remember)
1.
Foundational Battles: First Panipat (1526) by
Babur; Second
Panipat (1556) by Akbar.
2.
Akbar's Policies: Sulh-i-Kul, Din-i-Ilahi, Mansabdari, and Todar Mal's Bandobast.
3.
Architecture: Link rulers to monuments (Shah Jahan - Taj Mahal; Akbar -
Fatehpur Sikri).
4.
Aurangzeb's Reign: Know his religious policies and the main rebellions he
faced (Marathas, Jats, Sikhs, Rajputs).
5.
Foreign Invaders: Nadir
Shah (1739) and Ahmed Shah Abdali (1761).
6.
End of the Empire: Revolt
of 1857 and Bahadur
Shah Zafar.
Other
Important Contemporary Kingdoms
1. The Vijayanagara
Empire (1336-1646)
·
Founders: Harihara and Bukka (under the guidance of sage
Vidyaranya).
·
Important Rulers: Krishnadevaraya (of
the Tuluva dynasty) – peak of the empire. Patron of Telugu literature.
·
Battle of Talikota (1565): Combined forces
of Deccan Sultanates defeated Vijayanagara, leading to its decline.
·
Architecture: Vittala
Temple, Hazara Rama Temple in Hampi.
2. The Bahmani
Sultanate (1347-1527)
·
Founder: Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah.
·
Conflict: Constant warfare with Vijayanagara.
·
Important Figure: Mahmud
Gawan – Prime Minister, known for administrative reforms.
3. The Maratha Empire
(1674-1818)
·
Founder: Chhatrapati
Shivaji Maharaj (coronated in 1674).
·
Administration: Ashta
Pradhan (Council of 8 Ministers).
·
Military: Guerilla warfare (Ganimi
Kava), strong navy.
·
Conflict: Fought against the Mughals (particularly Aurangzeb) in the
Mughal-Maratha Wars.
4. The Bhakti and Sufi
Movements
·
Bhakti Saints: Ramananda,
Kabir (disciple of Ramananda), Guru Nanak Dev (founder
of Sikhism), Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu, Mirabai,
Tulsidas (wrote Ramcharitmanas).
·
Sufi Saints: Khwaja
Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi).
They promoted love and devotion to God and social harmony.
The Vijayanagara
Empire (1336 - 1646 CE)
Significance: The Vijayanagara
Empire emerged as a Hindu
bulwark against the advancing Deccan Sultanates, promoting
Hindu traditions and administration while fostering a unique syncretic culture.
It is renowned for its spectacular architecture and efficient administration.
Founding
& Dynasties
The empire was ruled by four successive
dynasties:
|
Dynasty |
Period |
Notable Rulers |
|
Sangama |
1336 - 1485 |
Harihara I, Bukka I, Deva Raya I, Deva
Raya II |
|
Saluva |
1485 - 1505 |
Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya |
|
Tuluva |
1505 - 1570 |
Krishnadevaraya, Achyuta Deva
Raya, Sadasiva Raya |
|
Aravidu |
1570 - 1646 |
Rama Raya (de facto ruler earlier),
Tirumala Deva Raya |
·
Founders: Harihara
I and Bukka
I (brothers), who were originally in the service of the Kakatiya
kingdom. They were inspired and guided by the sage Vidyaranya.
·
Capital: Vijayanagara ("City
of Victory"), on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, near modern-day Hampi, Karnataka.
Major
Rulers and their Contributions
1. Deva Raya II (1424 - 1446 CE)
·
Considered the greatest ruler of the Sangama Dynasty.
·
Took the title Gajabetekara (the
Elephant Hunter).
·
His empire extended from Sri Lanka in the south to Gulbarga in
the north and from the Malabar coast to the Coromandel coast.
·
The Persian ambassador Abd al-Razzaq visited his court and
left a vivid account of the empire's wealth and splendor.
2. Krishnadevaraya (1509 - 1529 CE)
·
The greatest
ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire and of the Tuluva Dynasty. His
reign marked the zenith
of the empire.
·
Military Campaigns:
o Defeated the Sultan of
Bijapur and recaptured the strategic fort of Raichur.
o Subdued the Gajapati
ruler of Odisha and conquered territories up to the Krishna River.
o Maintained a strong
army and a powerful navy.
·
Administration: He was an able administrator. His reign was known for
peace, prosperity, and efficiency.
·
Patronage of Literature:
o A great patron of art
and literature, known as Abhinava
Bhoja.
o He was a scholar in
Sanskrit and Telugu. He wrote Amuktamalyada (in
Telugu) on Andhra polity.
o His court was adorned
with the Ashtadiggajas (Eight
Elephants), the eight great Telugu poets, including Allasani Peddana (the Andhra Kavita Pitamaha).
·
Titles: Kannada
Rajya Rama Ramana, Andhra
Bhoja, Mooru
Rayara Ganda (Lord of three Kings).
3. Rama Raya (1542 - 1565 CE)
·
The de facto ruler during the reign of the last Tuluva king,
Sadasiva Raya.
·
He played the Deccan Sultans against each other through shrewd
diplomacy.
·
His policy eventually backfired, leading to the formation of
a confederacy of
the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, and
Bidar) against Vijayanagara.
·
He was defeated and killed in the Battle of Talikota (Rakshasa-Tangadi)
in 1565.
The Battle
of Talikota (1565) and the Decline
·
Cause: The growing power of Vijayanagara and Rama Raya's
interference in the politics of the Deccan Sultanates.
·
Event: A combined army of the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur,
Ahmadnagar, Golconda, Bidar) met the Vijayanagara army at Talikota.
·
Result: Defeat
of Vijayanagara. Rama Raya was captured and executed. The
capital city of Vijayanagara
was ruthlessly plundered and destroyed.
·
Aftermath: The empire fragmented, though it continued in a
much-weakened form under the Aravidu
Dynasty until 1646.
Administration
·
Monarchy: The king was the supreme authority but was assisted by a
council of ministers.
·
Provincial Administration: The empire was
divided into:
o Rajya (Mandalam) –
Province
o Nadu – District
o Sthala – Sub-district
o Grama – Village
·
The Nayankara System:
o Similar to the Iqta
system. Military chiefs or governors, called Nayakas, were granted
territories (Amaram)
for their services.
o They collected land
revenue, maintained law and order, and provided troops to the king.
·
The Ayagar System:
o At the village level,
all functionaries like accountants, watchmen, etc., were hereditary officials.
They were paid through tax-free land grants.
Economy
·
Agriculture: Was the backbone. The empire built an extensive network
of tanks and
canals for irrigation.
·
Trade:
o Internal: Active trade
within the empire.
o External: Thriving trade
with Persia, Arabia, Africa, Portugal, and Southeast Asia.
o Exports: Spices (pepper,
cardamom), cotton, sugar, pearls.
o Imports: Horses (from
Arabia and Persia), copper, coral, mercury, fine silks.
o Ports: Key ports were
Calicut, Mangalore, and Bhatkal.
·
Coinage: Issued a large number of gold coins called Varaha or Hon. Other coins
were Pagodas (gold)
and Fanams (silver).
Society and
Culture
·
Social Life: The caste system was prevalent. The position of women was
relatively good, with instances of women in administration and business.
However, social evils like sati were
practiced.
·
Religion: The empire was a stronghold of Hinduism (both
Vaishnavism and Shaivism), but all religions were tolerated. Jainism also
flourished.
·
Languages: Sanskrit,
Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil were all used for
administration and literature.
·
Literature: The empire was a great patron of literature in all
languages.
o Sanskrit: Sayana wrote
commentaries on the Vedas.
o Telugu: Golden age under
Krishnadevaraya.
o Kannada: Kumara Vyasa
wrote Karnataka
Bharatha Kathamanjari.
Architecture
(A High-Yielding Topic)
Vijayanagara architecture is famous for
its massive scale, intricacy, and unique features.
·
Key Features:
1.
Monolithic Sculptures: Giant, carved statues like the Narasimha statue and Ganesha statues at
Hampi.
2.
Ornate Pillars: Characteristic pillars with charging horses (Yali),
and mythical creatures.
3.
Large Raya Gopurams: Towering gateway towers.
4.
Amman Shrines: Separate shrines for the consorts of the main deity.
5.
Marriage of Styles: A fusion of Dravida and Indo-Islamic
styles.
·
Major Structures at Hampi (UNESCO World Heritage Site):
1.
Virupaksha Temple: Dedicated to Lord Shiva, the oldest and main functioning
temple.
2.
Vittala Temple: Famous for its extraordinary musical pillars and
the iconic stone
chariot.
3.
Hazara Rama Temple: Known for bas-reliefs depicting
scenes from the Ramayana. It was the private temple of the royal family.
4.
Lotus Mahal: A beautiful palace structure blending Hindu and Islamic
styles.
5.
Elephant Stables: A long structure with domed chambers.
Foreign
Travelers (Important for Exams)
Several foreign travelers visited
Vijayanagara and left valuable accounts:
·
Abd al-Razzaq (Persian): Visited during Deva Raya II's reign.
·
Domingo Paes and Fernao
Nuniz (Portuguese): Visited during Krishnadevaraya's
reign. Their accounts are crucial for understanding the glory of the empire at
its peak.
·
Niccolò de' Conti (Italian): Visited in the early 15th century.
Crucial
Exam Takeaways (Must Remember)
1.
Founders: Harihara
and Bukka, guided by Vidyaranya.
2.
Greatest Ruler: Krishnadevaraya –
his titles, his work Amuktamalyada,
and the Ashtadiggajas.
3.
Major Battle: Battle
of Talikota (1565) – cause (Rama Raya's policy) and
consequence (sack of Hampi).
4.
Administrative Systems: Nayankara and Ayagar systems.
5.
Architecture: Key features and examples – Vittala Temple (Stone Chariot), Lotus Mahal, Elephant Stables.
6.
Capital: Hampi (modern
name) on the banks of the Tungabhadra
River.
The Bahmani
Sultanate (1347 - 1527 AD)
Significance: The Bahmani
Sultanate was the first independent Islamic kingdom in the Deccan region of
South India. Its prolonged conflict with the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire defined
the political landscape of the Deccan for nearly 200 years. Its eventual
disintegration led to the formation of the Deccan Sultanates.
Founding
and Consolidation
·
Founder: Hasan
Gangu, who took the title Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah.
·
Origin: He was a noble who rebelled against the Delhi Sultan
Muhammad bin Tughlaq, taking advantage of the latter's weak control over the
distant Deccan provinces.
·
Capital: The capital was initially at Gulbarga (Ahsanabad)
and later shifted to Bidar (Muhammadabad)
by Ahmad Shah Wali.
·
Namesake: The Sultanate was named 'Bahmani' after Bahman, a
legendary Persian hero, from whom Hasan Gangu claimed descent.
Major
Rulers and their Contributions
1. Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347 - 1358)
·
Established the core territory of the Sultanate by dividing it
into four administrative units (tarafs):
Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar, and Bidar.
·
Laid the foundation for a centralized administration.
2. Muhammad Shah I (1358 - 1375)
·
Fought 16
wars against the Vijayanagara Empire and the Warangal
(Reddy) kingdom.
·
Was advised by a powerful and capable minister, Siranjar 'Ain-ul-Mulk'.
3. Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah (1397 - 1422)
·
The most notable ruler of the early Bahmani period.
·
Military Campaigns: Fought successful wars against
Vijayanagara and extracted tribute. His victory is commemorated in the Kitab-e-Navras.
·
Culture & Administration:
o A great patron of art
and learning; a scholar himself who knew several languages.
o His court was adorned
with learned men, including the Persian historian Muhammad Kasim Ferishta (who
wrote the Tarikh-i-Ferishta much
later).
o Built an observatory in
Daulatabad.
4. Ahmad Shah Wali (1422 - 1436)
·
Known for his extreme religious zeal. He destroyed Hindu temples
and persecuted non-Muslims.
·
Shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar, a more strategic and
defensible location.
·
Was a disciple of the Sufi saint Gesu Daraz, whom he
invited to Gulbarga.
5. Mahmud Gawan (1446 - 1481) - The Great Minister
·
Not a Sultan, but the most important figure in Bahmani
history. He served as the Prime
Minister (Wazir) under three Sultans: Alauddin Ahmad III,
Alauddin Humayun, and Muhammad Shah III.
·
Administrative Reforms:
o Land Revenue Reforms: Systematically
measured land and fixed the boundaries of the revenue divisions to increase the
state's income.
o Military Reforms: Broke the large
provinces (tarafs)
into smaller ones to curb the power of the provincial governors (tarafdars). He also
introduced strict accounting for the army to prevent fraud.
·
Patron of Learning: Built a magnificent madrasa (college) in
Bidar, which had a library of over 3,000 manuscripts. Its ruins remain a major
historical site.
·
Downfall: His reforms made him powerful enemies among the old
Turkish and Deccani nobles. They conspired against him and convinced the Sultan
to execute him in 1481 on
false charges of treason.
·
Consequence: His execution was a catastrophic blow from which the
Bahmani Sultanate never recovered. It marked the beginning of its rapid
disintegration.
Conflict
with Vijayanagara
·
The primary cause of conflict was the control over the Raichur Doab, a
fertile and resource-rich region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers,
rich in diamonds and minerals.
·
Another key point of contention was the control of the Konkan coast and
its ports, which were crucial for the horse trade from Arabia and Persia.
·
This rivalry culminated in the Battle of Talikota (1565),
where a confederacy of the Bahmani's successor states (the Deccan Sultanates)
finally destroyed Vijayanagara.
Administration
·
The kingdom was divided into eight provinces called Tarafs, each under
a Tarafdar or
Subedar.
·
The Tarafdar was a military commander, revenue collector, and
chief administrator of the province.
·
The state language was Persian.
Society and
Culture: The Deccani Synthesis
·
A unique Indo-Islamic
culture developed in the Deccan, blending Persian,
Turkish, and local Hindu traditions.
·
Language: A new language, Dakhini Urdu (a blend of Persian,
Arabic, and local languages), emerged as a lingua franca.
·
Architecture: Developed a distinct Deccani architectural style.
o Features: Massive
fortifications, robust arches, and intricate stucco decoration.
o Examples:
§ Gulbarga: Jami Masjid (resembles
a Spanish mosque, with no open courtyard).
§ Bidar: Madrasa of Mahmud Gawan, Bidar Fort, and the Royal Palaces.
§ Tombs at Gulbarga and Bidar.
·
The Sultanate was a major center for Sufism, with the
Chishti order being particularly influential.
Decline and
Disintegration
After the death of Mahmud Gawan, the
central authority weakened due to:
1.
Constant wars with Vijayanagara.
2.
Factional rivalries between the "Deccanis" (old
Muslim nobles of Indian origin) and "Afaqis" or "Gharibs"
(newcomers from Persia, Turkey, and Central Asia).
3.
Weak and pleasure-loving successors.
The Sultanate finally broke up into five
independent Deccan
Sultanates by 1527:
|
Successor State |
Founder |
Capital |
|
Bijapur |
Yusuf Adil Shah |
Bijapur |
|
Ahmadnagar |
Malik Ahmad |
Ahmadnagar |
|
Golconda |
Quli Qutb Shah |
Golconda/Hyderabad |
|
Bidar |
Amir Ali Barid |
Bidar |
|
Berar |
Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk |
Achalpur (Ellichpur) |
Crucial
Exam Takeaways (Must Remember)
1.
Founder: Alauddin
Hasan Bahman Shah (revolted against Muhammad bin Tughlaq).
2.
Greatest Ruler: Taj
ud-Din Firuz Shah (for cultural patronage).
3.
Most Important Figure: Mahmud Gawan – his administrative reforms and
the tragic consequence
of his execution.
4.
Main Conflict: Rivalry with Vijayanagara over
the Raichur Doab.
5.
Capital: Initially Gulbarga,
later shifted to Bidar.
6.
Architecture: Distinct Deccani
style; the Madrasa
of Mahmud Gawan in Bidar is a key monument.
7.
End: Disintegrated into five Deccan Sultanates (remember
the names: Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Berar).
The Maratha
Empire (1674 - 1818 AD)
Significance: The Maratha
Empire emerged as a powerful Hindu confederacy that effectively ended Mughal
supremacy in India and became the dominant power in the subcontinent in the
18th century. Its eventual defeat in the Anglo-Maratha Wars paved the way for
British colonial rule.
Founding
and Ideology: Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1674 - 1680)
·
Founder: Chhatrapati
Shivaji Maharaj (born at Shivneri Fort in 1630). He was
formally crowned Chhatrapati (paramount sovereign) in 1674 at Raigad Fort.
·
Ideology: The core ideal was "Hindavi Swarajya" (Self-rule
of the Hindu people). He aimed to establish a Maratha state free from Mughal
and Deccani Sultanate rule.
·
Military Innovations:
o Guerrilla Warfare
(Ganimi Kava): Mastered the use of light cavalry, rapid movement, and
knowledge of the local terrain to defeat larger, conventional armies.
o Naval Power: Built a strong
navy to protect the Konkan coast and challenge foreign powers like the Siddis
of Janjira and the Portuguese.
o Network of Forts: Controlled a
network of over 300 forts, which formed the backbone of his defense and administration.
Administration under Shivaji (Important for Mains)
·
Central Administration: The Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight
Ministers)
o Each minister was
directly responsible to the Chhatrapati.
o Peshwa (Prime Minister)
o Amatya / Mazumdar (Finance Minister)
o Sachiv (Secretary)
o Mantri (Interior
Minister)
o Senapati (Commander-in-Chief)
o Sumant (Foreign
Minister)
o Nyayadhish (Chief Justice)
o Panditrao (High Priest)
·
Revenue System:
o Based on the systems
of Malik Amber of
Ahmednagar.
o Land was carefully
measured (Paimaish).
o Revenue was fixed
at 30% of
the produce, to be paid in cash or kind.
o The Ryotwari System was
introduced, where revenue was collected directly from the peasants, removing
intermediaries.
The Peshwa
Era (1707 - 1818)
After Shivaji's death, his grandson Shahu I (1708-1749)
appointed a Peshwa
(Prime Minister) as the chief executive. The Peshwas
gradually became the de facto rulers, and the office became hereditary.
Key Peshwas and their Contributions
1.
Balaji Vishwanath (1713 - 1720):
o The first powerful
Peshwa.
o He secured the Mughal Sanad (Charter) of 1719 from
the Mughal Emperor, which granted the Marathas the right to collect taxes (Sardeshmukhi and Chauth) in the six Mughal
provinces of the Deccan. This was a major political victory.
2.
Baji Rao I (1720 - 1740):
o The most dynamic
Peshwa. He famously stated, "Strike at the trunk and the branches will fall of
themselves," advocating for a direct offensive against the
Mughals in Delhi.
o Military Campaigns:
§ Captured Malwa (1723)
and Gujarat (1731).
§ Defeated the
Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad at the Battle
of Palkhed (1728).
§ Raided Delhi in 1737.
o He transformed the
Maratha State into a vast Maratha
Empire.
3.
Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (1740 - 1761):
o The Third Battle of
Panipat (1761):
§ Cause: Maratha expansion
into the Northwest brought them into conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani
Empire of Afghanistan).
§ The Battle: The Maratha army,
led by Sadashiv
Rao Bhau, was decisively defeated by Abdali's forces.
§ Consequences:
§ A catastrophic blow to
Maratha power and prestige.
§ Halted their northward
expansion.
§ The Peshwa's central
authority weakened, and the Maratha Confederacy became a loose alliance.
4.
Madhav Rao I (1761 - 1772):
o Known as the "Great Savior of the Maratha Dominion."
o He resurrected the
Maratha power after Panipat and restored its lost glory.
o He successfully checked
the rising power of the British East India Company (First Anglo-Maratha War
began just after his death).
The Maratha
Confederacy
After the death of Madhav Rao I, the
empire transformed into a loose confederacy of five powerful chiefs:
|
Chief / State |
Founder |
Base of Power |
|
The Peshwa |
- |
Pune (Nominal
head of the Confederacy) |
|
The Gaekwads |
Pilaji Gaekwad |
Baroda (Gujarat) |
|
The Holkars |
Malhar Rao Holkar |
Indore (Malwa) |
|
The Scindias |
Ranoji Scindia |
Gwalior (Central
India) |
|
The Bhonsles |
Raghoji Bhonsle |
Nagpur (Berar) |
The main weakness of
the Confederacy was internal rivalry and the lack of a strong central authority, which the British expertly
exploited.
The
Anglo-Maratha Wars and the Fall of the Empire
1.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782):
o Cause: British
interference in a succession dispute of the Peshwa.
o Result: Maratha victory. The
Treaty of Salbai (1782) maintained the status quo. This was the only major
setback for the British in 18th-century India.
2.
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805):
o Cause: Internal rivalry
among the Maratha chiefs. The British fought against the Scindia and Bhonsle
factions.
o Result: Decisive British victory. Treaty
of Bassein (1802), where the Peshwa accepted British subsidiary alliance. The
Scindias and Bhonsles lost significant territories.
3.
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818):
o Cause: The British
desire to crush the last remnants of Maratha power.
o Result: Complete British victory. The
Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated, captured, and pensioned off. The Maratha
Empire was formally annexed, and the British became the paramount power in
India.
Crucial
Exam Takeaways (Must Remember)
1.
Founder & Ideology: Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and Hindavi Swarajya.
2.
Administration: Ashta
Pradhan and the Ryotwari revenue system.
3.
Key Peshwas: Baji
Rao I (expansion) and the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) under
Balaji Baji Rao.
4.
The Confederacy: Know the five
major houses (Peshwa, Scindia, Holkar, Bhonsle, Gaekwad)
and their bases.
5.
Reason for Decline: Internal rivalry in the Confederacy
and the three Anglo-Maratha
Wars, culminating in the Third War (1818).
6.
Important Treaties: Treaty of Salbai (1782) and Treaty of Bassein (1802).
The Bhakti
and Sufi Movements (c. 8th - 18th Century)
Significance: These parallel
movements emphasized a personal, devotional path to God, rejecting rigid
ritualism and caste hierarchies. They played a transformative role in bridging
the gap between Hinduism and Islam, enriching Indian culture and paving the way
for a composite culture.
A. The
Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti Movement was a transformative
religious movement within Hinduism that started in South India (Tamil Nadu)
around the 7th-8th century AD and spread northwards, reaching its peak between
the 14th and 17th centuries.
I. Core Features and Principles
·
Intense Devotion (Bhakti): Emphasis on a
loving, personal devotion to a single, supreme God as the path to salvation.
·
Rejection of Ritualism: Opposed to elaborate rituals, blind
faith, and priestly domination.
·
Social Equality: Open to all, regardless of caste, creed, or gender. They
challenged the caste system.
·
Guru's Importance: Stressed the need for a guru for spiritual guidance.
·
Use of Vernacular Languages: Preached in the
local languages of the people (like Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, etc.) instead of
Sanskrit, making spirituality accessible to the masses.
II. Major Bhakti Saints and Their Contributions
The movement can be broadly divided into
two streams: the Nirguna school
(worshipping a formless God) and the Saguna school (worshipping a God
with attributes).
|
Saint |
Period |
Region |
Language |
Philosophy & Contributions |
|
Adi Shankaracharya |
8th Cent |
South (Kerala) |
Sanskrit |
Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism).
Though pre-Bhakti, he consolidated doctrine. |
|
Nayanars (Appar,
Sambandar, etc.) |
7th-10th Cent |
Tamil Nadu |
Tamil |
Shaivite saints.
Wrote devotional hymns (compiled as Tirumurai). |
|
Alvars (Nammalvar, Periyalvar,
etc.) |
7th-10th Cent |
Tamil Nadu |
Tamil |
Vaishnavite saints.
Wrote hymns (compiled as Divya
Prabandham). |
|
Basavanna |
12th Cent |
Karnataka |
Kannada |
Founder of Lingayatism/Veerashaivism.
Rebelled against caste. Vachanas (prose
poems). |
|
Ramananda |
15th Cent |
North (Varanasi) |
Hindi |
Disciple of Ramanuja. Opened Bhakti to
all; his disciples included Kabir, Ravidas. |
|
Kabir |
15th Cent |
North (Varanasi) |
Hindi |
Nirguna. A weaver,
disciple of Ramananda. Critical of both Hinduism & Islam. Dohas (couplets). Bijak is his text. |
|
Guru Nanak Dev |
15th-16th Cent |
Punjab |
Punjabi |
Nirguna. Founder
of Sikhism.
Preached monotheism, equality, and Langar. |
|
Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu |
15th-16th Cent |
Bengal |
Bengali |
Saguna (Krishna). Sankirtan (collective
devotional singing). Influenced Gaudiya Vaishnavism. |
|
Mirabai |
16th Cent |
Rajasthan |
Hindi/Rajasthani |
Saguna (Krishna). A Rajput
queen known for her soulful bhajans. |
|
Tulsidas |
16th Cent |
North (Varanasi) |
Awadhi |
Saguna (Rama). Wrote the
epic Ramcharitmanas. |
|
Surdas |
16th Cent |
North (Vrindavan) |
Braj Bhasha |
Saguna (Krishna). Composed Sursagar (poems on
Krishna's life). |
|
Shankaradeva |
15th-16th Cent |
Assam |
Assamese |
Spread Vaishnavism in Assam.
Introduced Sattriya dance, Ankiya Nat (one-act
plays). |
B. The Sufi
Movement
Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam
that emerged as a reaction against the growing materialism and rigid legalism
of the Caliphate. It arrived in India around the 11th-12th centuries.
I. Core Features and Principles
·
Concept of God: Emphasis on the unity of God (Tauhid) and
experiencing His presence through love and devotion.
·
Importance of a Pir/Murshid: A spiritual guide
is essential for the seeker (murid).
·
Sama: Spiritual music and dance sessions (Qawwali) to induce a
state of ecstasy.
·
Khanqahs: Sufi monasteries or hospices which served as centers of
learning, charity, and community gathering.
·
Meditation & Zikr: Remembering and repeating the name
of God.
·
Principles of Sulh-i-Kul: "Peace with All" –
promoting universal brotherhood and tolerance.
II. Major Sufi Orders (Silsilas) in India
|
Sufi Order |
Founder |
Key Features & Important Saints in
India |
|
Chishti Order |
Moinuddin Chishti |
- Most popular and liberal order. |
|
Suhrawardi Order |
Bahauddin Zakariya |
- Believers: Actively involved in
politics and accepted state patronage. |
|
Naqshbandi Order |
Khawja Baqi Billah |
- Believers: Rejected music and
other innovations. Stressed strict adherence to Sharia. |
|
Qadri Order |
Miyan Mir |
- Popular in Punjab. |
Impact and
Significance of Both Movements
1.
Religious Impact:
o Weakened the position
of orthodox priests and Ulema.
o Promoted religious
tolerance and mutual understanding between Hindus and Muslims.
o Emphasized a personal,
direct connection with God.
2.
Social Impact:
o Provided a platform for
social equality and dignity for the lower castes and women.
o Condemned social evils
like the caste system and Sati.
3.
Cultural Impact:
o Literature: Enriched regional
languages (e.g., Kabir's Hindi, Tulsidas's Awadhi, Sankaradeva's Assamese).
Amir Khusrau, a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya, is credited with inventing the
Sitar and the origin of Qawwali and Khari Boli.
o Music & Arts: Development of
new forms of music like Qawwali, Kirtan, and new classical ragas.
o Architecture: The dargahs (Sufi
tombs) like that in Ajmer and Delhi became centers of cultural synthesis.
4.
Political Impact:
o Created a climate of
mutual respect which helped rulers like Akbar to implement policies like Sulh-i-Kul.
Comparison:
Bhakti vs. Sufi Movements
|
Basis |
Bhakti Movement |
Sufi Movement |
|
Origin |
Indigenous, within Hinduism. |
Originated in the Middle East, outside
India. |
|
Philosophical Base |
Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita. |
Quran and teachings of Islamic mystics. |
|
Concept of God |
Both Nirguna (Formless) and Saguna (With
Form). |
Strictly monotheistic, formless (Allah). |
|
Primary Goal |
Moksha (Liberation). |
Union with God (Fana). |
|
Social Outreach |
Directly challenged the caste system. |
Promoted equality but within the Islamic
framework. |
Crucial
Exam Takeaways (Must Remember)
1.
Bhakti Saints: Kabir,
Guru Nanak, Tulsidas, Mirabai – know their philosophy and
works.
2.
Sufi Saints & Orders: Chishti Order – Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer), Nizamuddin
Auliya (Delhi). Know the difference between Chishti and
Suhrawardi orders.
3.
Key Concepts: Nirguna/Saguna
Bhakti, Khanqah, Sama, Sulh-i-Kul.
4.
Impact: Promotion of regional
languages, challenge to caste system, and fostering of composite culture.
5.
Important Terms: Doha,
Kirtan, Qawwali, Langar, Dargah.
Crucial
Topics for Exam Preparation
1.
Battles of Panipat: 1st (1526), 2nd (1556), 3rd (1761) –
Causes, key figures, outcomes.
2.
Administrative Systems: Mansabdari, Jagirdari, and Iqta
systems; Revenue systems of Sher Shah and Akbar.
3.
Architecture:
o Delhi Sultanate: Qutb Minar, Alai
Darwaza, Tughlaqabad Fort.
o Mughal: Taj Mahal, Red
Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Humayun's Tomb.
o Regional: Vijayanagara
(Hampi), Rajput (Chittor, Jaisalmer), Bengali (Adina Masjid).
4.
Literature & Personalities: Amir Khusro (Sufi
poet in Delhi Sultanate), Tulsidas, Surdas, court historians like Abul Fazl
(wrote Ain-i-Akbari).
5.
Religious Policies: Compare and contrast Akbar's Din-i-Ilahi and
Sulh-i-Kul with Aurangzeb's reimposition of Jizya and temple destruction.
6.
Foreign Travelers:
o Al-Biruni: Came with Mahmud
of Ghazni, wrote Kitab-ul-Hind.
o Ibn Battuta: Visited during
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq's reign.
o Marco Polo: Visited Kakatiya
kingdom (Rudramadevi) and Pandya kingdom.
o Thomas Roe: Ambassador of
James I to Jahangir's court.
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